James Brunson -- Narrative Learning Literature Review

Abstract

This paper will examine literature representing narrative learning, focusing on publications made available since 1998. The paper will begin with an introduction to narrative learning as an adult learning methodology. Common concepts developed in the literature will be identified.  It will proceed to discuss the practicality of narrative learning and specific ideas for its application presented in the literature. The paper will conclude with a discussion about how examples of current literature addressing narrative learning can inform adult education practice. Authors whose narrative learning writings were researched for this paper were Sharan B. Merriam, Rosemary S. Caffarella, Lisa M. Baumgartner, M. Carolyn Clark, Marsha Rossiter, Elena Michelson, and John M. Dirkx.

Narrative Learning Literature Review

Introduction

          “Narrative is on the move.” (Clark & Rossiter, 2008) Narrative learning is simply teaching through stories. It has actually been “on the move” throughout human history, and in recent decades has begun to receive attention as an education methodology worthy of scholarly study. Narrative learning has applications for the education of students of all ages, but adult education applications will be the focus of this paper. Narrative learning occurs through use of a variety of narrative types, some of those that are commonly recognized are cultural, familial, individual, and organizational. (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007) The writer of this paper frequently uses cultural and individual narratives in the classroom.

          S.B. Merriam, R.S. Caffarella, and L.M. Baumgartner, The authors of “Learning in Adulthood” (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007), the assigned textbook for EDAC-634, have been actively collaborating in the field of adult education since at least the early 1990s, when the first edition of the text was released. All three have long experience teaching adults at their respective institutions and have broad and deep experience outside the classroom that augments their understanding of adult education generally and narrative learning particularly.

          Per the aforementioned authors, acceptance and recognition of learning through storytelling, narrative learning, is long overdue: “Although it has only been since the 1990s that narrative learning has received some attention in adult education, the field’s historical recognition of the importance of experience in learning, as well as learning as a meaning-making activity, have made for the ready acceptance of narrative as learning.” (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007, p. 209)

          Main themes of narrative learning are associated with the form of narrative being considered. “Rossiter (2005) and Rossiter and Clark (in press) identify three ways in which stories appear in practice: “storying” the curriculum, storytelling, and autobiography.” (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007, p. 209)

          “Storying” the curriculum has to do with creating a story to communicate course objectives to students, which is especially useful in a historical context. The writer has used storying to explain the development of occupational safety and health regulations in the United States. This narrative learning experience was conducted in the context of classroom discussion, with spirited participation by students as their awareness of the extent of improvement such regulations have fostered over time increased.

          Storytelling is an approach to narrative learning with great potential for personalizing topic-specific elements of a lesson. This writer frequently uses storytelling to humanize what otherwise might seem arcane aspects of construction business management. Adult students in his classrooms seldom have significant identifiable experience with construction business management, estimating, project management and supervisory responsibilities. The writer’s objective in using storytelling is to provide students an opportunity to gain a little experience in these important areas vicariously. Students are encouraged to make these vicarious experiences personal as they complete associated written assignments and participate in classroom discussions.

          The third form of narrative learning, autobiography, is one that the writer has not used as frequently or intensely as the previous two forms (storying and storytelling). The writer recognizes that using autobiography more represents an opportunity for him to improve his teaching effectiveness and he is anxious to increase his use of this form. Reflecting on what has been learned cements new learning in the minds of adult students. Creative use of autobiography is a means for this process of cementing to occur.

          “Narrative learning in Adulthood” (Clark & Rossiter, 2008), chapter 6 in the ‘Third Update on Adult Learning Theory”, by S.B. Merriam (2008), expands upon the narrative learning foundation cast in “Learning in Adulthood” (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007). Clark and Rossiter identify their task as follows: “Our task in this chapter is to examine what narrative learning is, how it works, and how it can be used more intentionally and effectively in the education of adults.” (Clark & Rossiter, 2008, p. 61) Narrative learning was defined in this paper previously. How narrative learning works in its three common variations was also described and exemplified previously. Drawing from Clark’s and Rossiter’s work in chapter 6 of the “Third Update on Adult Learning Theory“, “…how it (narrative learning) can be used more effectively in the education of adults.” will be the focus of the author’s observation and commentary. Making meaning of experience through application of narrative learning methodology is the general theme of this chapter. This “making meaning” is an aspect of transformative learning, as the process of re-storying plays out. (Clark & Rossiter, 2008, p. 62) The concept of describing adult educational development from the inside as it is experienced, rather from the outside as it is observed is significant and is a real advantage to narrative learning methodologies, in this writer’s opinion. Internalization of new learning is what education must consist of. Narrative learning aids this process as learners retell their experiences in the context of a particular lesson or share vicariously in the experience of the instructor. The phrase “narrative development” (Clark & Rossiter, 2008, p. 63) is used by the authors to name the process of adults changing their life narratives as they learn. The writer sees opportunity in developing this concept to guide students as they reflect upon their life experiences and re-frame them in light of what is being learned.

          “Narrative Learning: its Contours and Possibilities” by M. Carolyn Clark was published in the journal “American Psychological Association” in 2010. In it Clark defines narrative learning in a manner consistent with definitions found in the works reviewed previously: “…we make sense of all experience by narrating it (constructing it as a kind of story)” (Clark C. M., 2010, p. 3) One statement Clark makes that adds clarity to the definition of narrative learning is: “narration is a sense-making act. It’s what we do as individuals but, importantly, as individuals situated within various social contexts.” (Clark C. M., 2010, p. 3) Clark clearly develops the notion of narrative learning occurring at three levels, and idea with which the writer concurs. Clark’s three levels of narrative learning are:

1.     Learning from hearing stories;

2.     Learning from telling stories;

3.     Learning from stories by students recognizing narratives in which they are positioned.

      Clark’s third level of narrative learning, the idea of students recognizing narratives in which they are positioned, caught the attention of the writer. Here is one more valuable way for students to internalize narrative learning experiences. Discussions, journaling assignments, and even term papers could be improved by weaving requirements into them for students to recognize narratives in which they are positioned.

          “Autobiography and Selfhood in the Practice of Adult Learning”, by Elana Michelson (2011) focuses specifically upon autobiographical narrative learning. Michelson presents a perspective on narrative learning dramatically different from those expressed in writings reviewed earlier in this paper, even to the point of being jarring. Her objective is to strip away the sugar coating she believes many narratives acquire. She is interested in ‘keeping it real” concerning narrative learning: “There must be room in our practices for narratives that are jarring, unsatisfying, and/or structurally and emotionally jagged.” (Michelson, 2010, p. 18) The writer was a teenager that grew up during the Vietnam War. He found many familiar chords struck in Michelson’s article. He acknowledges and agrees with Michelson that there is nearly always a temptation to present narratives as favorably as possible and that there is value in striving to maintain genuineness in his own teaching narratives and in the narratives created by his students.

               ‘Transformative Learning Theory in the Practice of Adult Education: An Qverview”, by John M. Dirkx (1998), is a learning theory that embraces and incorporates narrative learning. In fact, narrative learning was not even specifically mentioned in this article. The reason for including this piece of literature has to do with Dirkx definition of transformative learning: “Thus transformative learning is essentially a way of understanding adult learning as a meaning-making process aimed at fostering a democratic vision of society and self-actualization of individuals.” (Dirkx, 1998, p. 9) Narrative learning is “a meaning-making process” for adults actively engaged in their education. I appreciate Dirkx opening sentence in his conclusion: “To think about adult learning as potentially transformative is to ground the content and processes of learning concretely within the lives of those with whom we work in an educative capacity, as well as within the socio-cultural context in which those lives are embedded.” (Dirkx, 1998, p. 11) Dirkx seems to advocate for activism as students lives are changed (transformed). This is a forward-looking concept that was not emphasized in writings reviewed earlier in this paper. The sort of activism he encourages could be regarded as a consequence of students becoming more aware of the narratives in which they are situated.      

Table 1. Summary of literature review
	Main ideas in the literature	Application of the main ideas in practice
Idea 1	Autobiography or journaling	Use the journaling feature in Blackboard and have students reflect on classroom experiences regularly.
Idea 2	Narrative Development	Have students consciously engage in re-framing life experiences in the light of new learning in discussions and journals.
Idea 3	Recognition of narratives in which students are situated	Encourage students to recognize the narratives in which they are situated and how they are being shaped by them.
Idea 4	Maintain genuineness and sincerity in narratives	Resolve to use teaching narratives as genuinely as possible and encourage genuineness and sincerity in narratives created by students.
Idea 5	Incorporate concepts of activism in narratives	As students experience narratives, encourage them to consider how they are may be energized for activism.